For instance, first-generation Chinese American children raised by authoritarian parents did just as well in school as peers who were raised by authoritative parents Russell et al.
Permissive parenting tends to be warm and loving but lacks follow-through on setting limits or rules. Permissive parents tend to be overindulgent, make few demands, rarely use punishment, and allow their children to make their own decisions, regardless of the consequences. They tend to be very nurturing and loving and may play the role of friend rather than parent.
These parents might be caught up in their own lives and therefore inattentive although not neglectful and exhibit little control over their children. However, there are some positive outcomes associated with children raised by permissive parents: many tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and report lower levels of depression Darling, With the uninvolved style of parenting, the parents are indifferent and sometimes referred to as neglectful. These children, much like those raised in permissive homes, tend to have myriad problems, but often the problems are often much more serious.
Children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, and anxious; perform poorly in school; and are at an increased risk of substance abuse Darling, Child development refers to the biological, psychological, and emotional changes that occur in humans between birth and the end of adolescence, as the individual progresses from dependency to increasing autonomy. The society and culture in which one grows up influence everything from developmental milestones and parenting styles to what kinds of hardship one is more likely to face.
Not all of the milestones were universal, meaning they are not experienced by all individuals across all cultures. Effective parenting styles also vary as a function of culture. American children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills. In contrast, authoritarian parenting characterized by parents placing high value on conformity and obedience, tightly monitoring their children, and expressing less warmth is seen as more beneficial in other cultures.
For instance, first-generation Chinese American children raised by authoritarian parents did just as well in school as their peers who were raised by authoritative parents Russell et al.
The effects of parenting style : Different parenting styles influence children differently depending on cultural norms and standards. Race and other identities are often sites of discrimination and oppression in societies; as such, they can have a tremendous impact on childhood development. The United States is a very racialized society, and children—especially children of color—often become aware of the dynamics of racism at a very young age. Children are taught the stereotypes that go along with their particular race s , as well as the races of others, and these stereotypes can have a strong influence on their development.
Stereotypes and racialized expectations often contribute to stereotype threat , in which a child experiences anxiety or concern in a situation that has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about his or her social group. Importantly, stereotype threat has been shown to be something of a self-fulfilling prophecy—not because the negative stereotype is accurate, but because fear of fulfilling that stereotype can lead to additional anxiety, which in turn can reduce performance.
For example, stereotype threat can lower the intellectual performance of black students taking the SAT, due to the stereotype that they are less intelligent than other groups, which may cause them to feel additional pressure and anxiety. Intersectionality is the study of the intersections, or the relationships, between different forms or systems of discrimination or oppression. This theory suggests that—and seeks to examine how—various biological, social, and cultural categories such as gender, race, class, ability, sexual orientation, religion, caste, and other areas of identity interact and contribute to various forms of social inequality.
Intersectionality holds that different forms of discrimination—such as racism, sexism, biphobia, ableism, transphobia, and classism—do not act independently of one another; instead, they interrelate and create a system based on multiple forms of discrimination. All of these factors are important to keep in mind when examining the cultural influences of such discrimination on child development.
For example, the experience of growing up as an African-American girl in the United States cannot be understood only in terms of being black or of being female; instead, the ways in which these identities interact and frequently reinforce each other must be examined. Race is also closely linked to class, and people of color are still statistically much more likely to lack access to basic resources and experience economic hardship. These resources include everything from proper nutrition and healthcare to good education systems and neighborhood parks.
Privacy Policy. Skip to main content. Human Development. Search for:. Infancy and Childhood. Learning Objectives Review the milestones of neonatal development. Key Takeaways Key Points There are five states of arousal in which newborn babies spend their time: regular sleep, irregular sleep, drowsiness, quiet alertness , and crying. Touch is the most highly developed at birth, while vision is the least developed. There are several important reflexes that a newborn baby shows after birth, each with a specific duration and function.
Key Terms colic : Severe pains that grip the abdomen or the disease that causes such pains due to intestinal or bowel related problems. Learning Objectives Review the milestones of physical development in childhood. Key Takeaways Key Points The development of both gross and fine motor skills helps a child go from being a completely dependent newborn to being an independently functioning toddler in about three years.
Fine motor skills involve the coordination of small muscle movements, usually involving the hands working in coordination with the eyes. Children meet a myriad of physical development milestones in the first few years of life, from walking to drawing to self-feeding.
Key Terms posture : The way a person holds and positions their body. Cognitive Development in Childhood Cognitive development occurs rapidly during childhood as the brain continues to grow and develop. Learning Objectives Review the neurological and cognitive milestones of development in childhood.
Key Takeaways Key Points Cognitive development refers to the development of a child in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, and language learning. Through a process known as synaptic pruning, neurons that are not useful to the brain die off, making room for more relevant connections that help a child learn.
The process of myelination improves message transfer between synapses and assists in brain development; essentially, it assists in the development of advanced brain function. The concept of neuroplasticity explores how the brain changes in the course of a lifetime and how different areas of the brain can evolve and adapt over time.
Key Terms synapse : The junction between the terminal of a neuron and either another neuron or a muscle or gland cell, over which nerve impulses pass. Socioemotional Development in Childhood Childhood is a time of rapid emotional and social development, as children learn to regulate emotions and interact with others.
Learning Objectives Review the milestones of socioemotional development in childhood. Key Takeaways Key Points Emotional development is essentially the way emotions change or remain constant across the human lifespan.
Some children are warm, friendly, and responsive, whereas others tend to be more irritable, less manageable, and difficult to console. Taken together, it seems safe to say that attachment, like most other developmental processes, is affected by an interplay of genetic and socialization influences. You might wonder whether the attachment style displayed by infants has much influence later in life.
Psychologists have studied the persistence of attachment styles over time using longitudinal research designs — research designs in which individuals in the sample are followed and contacted over an extended period of time, often over multiple developmental stages. In one such study, Waters, Merrick, Treboux, Crowell, and Albersheim examined the extent of stability and change in attachment patterns from infancy to early adulthood.
In their research, 60 middle-class infants who had been tested in the strange situation at one year of age were recontacted 20 years later and interviewed using a measure of adult attachment.
The adults who changed categorization usually from secure to insecure were primarily those who had experienced traumatic events, such as the death or divorce of parents, severe illnesses contracted by the parents or the children themselves , or physical or sexual abuse by a family member.
In addition to finding that people generally display the same attachment style over time, longitudinal studies have also found that the attachment classification received in infancy as assessed using the strange situation or other measures predicts many childhood and adult behaviours. Conducting longitudinal research is a very difficult task, but one that has substantial rewards.
When the sample is large enough and the time frame long enough, the potential findings of such a study can provide rich and important information about how people change over time and the causes of those changes. The drawbacks of longitudinal studies include the cost and the difficulty of finding a large sample that can be tracked accurately over time, and the time many years that it takes to get the data.
In addition, because the results are delayed over an extended period, the research questions posed at the beginning of the study may become less relevant over time as the research continues.
Cross-sectional research designs represent an alternative to longitudinal designs. In a cross-sectional research design, age comparisons are made between samples of different people at different ages at one time. In one example, Jang, Livesley, and Vernon studied two groups of identical and nonidentical fraternal twins, one group in their 20s and the other group in their 50s, to determine the influence of genetics on personality.
They found that genetics played a more significant role in the older group of twins, suggesting that genetics became more significant for personality in later adulthood. Cross-sectional studies have a major advantage in that the scientist does not have to wait for years to pass to get results. On the other hand, the interpretation of the results in a cross-sectional study is not as clear as those from a longitudinal study, in which the same individuals are studied over time. Most important, the interpretations drawn from cross-sectional studies may be confounded by cohort effects.
Cohort effects refer to the possibility that differences in cognition or behaviour at two points in time may be caused by differences that are unrelated to the changes in age.
The differences might instead be due to environmental factors that affect an entire age group. For instance, in the study by Jang, Livesley, and Vernon that compared younger and older twins, cohort effects might be a problem. The two groups of adults necessarily grew up in different time periods, and they may have been differentially influenced by societal experiences, such as economic hardship, the presence of wars, or the introduction of new technology. As a result, it is difficult in cross-sectional studies such as this one to determine whether the differences between the groups e.
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